INTRODUCTION
Like that of all nations, the history of Great Britain is conditioned by its geographic setting. The plethora of geographical and political factors found in Britain can be overwhelming and reflects the ebb and flow of power over the centuries.
Geography, Climate, and Natural Resources
Great Britain, which includes the constituent units of England, Wales, and Scotland, is the world’s ninth-largest island. It covers about 80,823 square miles (209,331 square kilometers) and extends about 600 miles (966 kilometers) from north to south and about 300 miles (483 kilome- ters) from east to west. Britain is the largest island of the British Isles, an archipelago—that is, a group of islands.
Despite Britain’s position in the northern latitudes of Europe—the same distance from the equator as the southern parts of the cold countries of Norway and Sweden—the presence of the warm waters of the Gulf Stream makes the archipelago much warmer than the cor- responding areas in North America or Scandinavia. (Some fear that global warming will alter the course of the Gulf Stream away from the British Isles; thus, paradoxically, some British worry that it will make their islands much colder.) The climate is very wet, and rainfall is pretty evenly distributed and frequent, meaning that British farmers have little need for the elaborate irrigation systems characteristic of drier climes. Britain is seismically stable, and British earthquakes are small and very rarely destructive.
Britain is well endowed with minerals, particularly tin, lead, iron, and coal. The availability of iron and coal is one of the reasons why Britain was the home of the Industrial Revolution. Its North Sea coastal waters also have oil, but the supply is fast running out.
No place on the island of Great Britain is farther than 70 miles (113 kilometers) from the sea, and Britain’s rivers and irregular coastline provide numerous harbors, particularly facing south and east. The British were not always great sailors, nor did they always have a strong navy, but those powerful on the seas were a constant threat. Britain’s
Like that of all nations, the history of Great Britain is conditioned by its geographic setting. The plethora of geographical and political factors found in Britain can be overwhelming and reflects the ebb and flow of power over the centuries.
Geography, Climate, and Natural Resources
Great Britain, which includes the constituent units of England, Wales, and Scotland, is the world’s ninth-largest island. It covers about 80,823 square miles (209,331 square kilometers) and extends about 600 miles (966 kilometers) from north to south and about 300 miles (483 kilome- ters) from east to west. Britain is the largest island of the British Isles, an archipelago—that is, a group of islands.
Despite Britain’s position in the northern latitudes of Europe—the same distance from the equator as the southern parts of the cold countries of Norway and Sweden—the presence of the warm waters of the Gulf Stream makes the archipelago much warmer than the cor- responding areas in North America or Scandinavia. (Some fear that global warming will alter the course of the Gulf Stream away from the British Isles; thus, paradoxically, some British worry that it will make their islands much colder.) The climate is very wet, and rainfall is pretty evenly distributed and frequent, meaning that British farmers have little need for the elaborate irrigation systems characteristic of drier climes. Britain is seismically stable, and British earthquakes are small and very rarely destructive.
Britain is well endowed with minerals, particularly tin, lead, iron, and coal. The availability of iron and coal is one of the reasons why Britain was the home of the Industrial Revolution. Its North Sea coastal waters also have oil, but the supply is fast running out.
No place on the island of Great Britain is farther than 70 miles (113 kilometers) from the sea, and Britain’s rivers and irregular coastline provide numerous harbors, particularly facing south and east. The British were not always great sailors, nor did they always have a strong navy, but those powerful on the seas were a constant threat. Britain’s
separation from the continent also means that most invaders of Britain
were not entire peoples on the move but smaller groups of warriors.
Successful invasions and conquests in British history have usually
resulted in the imposition of a new ruling class rather than the intro-
duction of an entirely new people.
Britain is marked by pronounced regional differences. The most basic division is that between highland areas and lowland areas. The “highland zone” is defined by being over 200 meters (656 feet) above sea level. Highland zones are found in Wales, much of Scotland, north- ern England, and parts of southwestern England, although lowland pockets exist in highland territories. The British highland zone is not really mountainous, as the highest mountains reach the modest height of roughly 4000 feet (1,219 meters). There is a much higher propor- tion of highland land in Scotland than in England, and the difference between the highlands and the lowlands and their inhabitants plays a central role in Scottish history and culture.
The highlands are marked by a greater emphasis on pastoralism, as they have mostly chalky soil and are too wet and cold for successful agriculture. The highlands are also much less densely populated than the lowlands, as it requires much more land to support a human being through pastoralism than through agriculture. Lowland areas are usu- ally more fertile. The most fertile lowlands are in the south and south- east of Britain, where there is rich, heavy soil more suited to agriculture. Lowlanders can engage in raising either grains or livestock, depending on circumstances. In the Middle Ages much of the lowlands was turned over to the highly profitable production of wool. Lowlanders tended to live in villages, highlanders in small hamlets or isolated farmsteads, or to be nomadic.
Invasions of Britain had much less effect on the highlands than on the lowlands, which constituted the really valuable prize due to their greater agricultural productivity. Those regimes exercising power throughout Britain or the British Isles were usually based in lowland England, the only place capable of supporting them. The extension of power from the lowlands to the highlands was a difficult challenge due to the difficulty of the terrain. Mountainous Wales preserved its independence for centuries despite its poverty and its inability to unite politically. The only invaders to subdue Wales before the 13th century were the well-organized and disciplined Roman legions, and it took them years after the conquest of England. The less-organized Anglo- Saxons, Vikings, and Normans had a much harder time, and Wales was only permanently annexed to England in 1284.
Britain is marked by pronounced regional differences. The most basic division is that between highland areas and lowland areas. The “highland zone” is defined by being over 200 meters (656 feet) above sea level. Highland zones are found in Wales, much of Scotland, north- ern England, and parts of southwestern England, although lowland pockets exist in highland territories. The British highland zone is not really mountainous, as the highest mountains reach the modest height of roughly 4000 feet (1,219 meters). There is a much higher propor- tion of highland land in Scotland than in England, and the difference between the highlands and the lowlands and their inhabitants plays a central role in Scottish history and culture.
The highlands are marked by a greater emphasis on pastoralism, as they have mostly chalky soil and are too wet and cold for successful agriculture. The highlands are also much less densely populated than the lowlands, as it requires much more land to support a human being through pastoralism than through agriculture. Lowland areas are usu- ally more fertile. The most fertile lowlands are in the south and south- east of Britain, where there is rich, heavy soil more suited to agriculture. Lowlanders can engage in raising either grains or livestock, depending on circumstances. In the Middle Ages much of the lowlands was turned over to the highly profitable production of wool. Lowlanders tended to live in villages, highlanders in small hamlets or isolated farmsteads, or to be nomadic.
Invasions of Britain had much less effect on the highlands than on the lowlands, which constituted the really valuable prize due to their greater agricultural productivity. Those regimes exercising power throughout Britain or the British Isles were usually based in lowland England, the only place capable of supporting them. The extension of power from the lowlands to the highlands was a difficult challenge due to the difficulty of the terrain. Mountainous Wales preserved its independence for centuries despite its poverty and its inability to unite politically. The only invaders to subdue Wales before the 13th century were the well-organized and disciplined Roman legions, and it took them years after the conquest of England. The less-organized Anglo- Saxons, Vikings, and Normans had a much harder time, and Wales was only permanently annexed to England in 1284.
The greater poverty of the highlands meant that highlanders often
raided lowlanders, creating hostility between the two. The highlands
were also more culturally and linguistically conservative. Cultural
innovations usually originated in the lowlands and spread to the
highlands. The highlands were where the Celtic languages lasted the
longest, as English and its offshoots, originally the language of Anglo-
Saxon invaders, became the dominant tongue of the lowlands in the
early Middle Ages. This cultural division further added to the hostility
between highland and lowland peoples.
Other variations in land include those of open country, with lighter soils; forests with heavy, clayey soils; and fens and swamps. Britain in the earliest times was heavily forested and also contained many fens and swamplands. These areas were often associated with outlaws and people who lived freer but poorer lives. Over the course of millennia, much of this land has been developed into agricultural use.
There are no really large rivers in Britain due to the small size of the island. The most important is the Thames in the south; others include the Trent and the Tweed in the north. Despite the lack of good, waterborne internal communications, the ocean’s proximity makes it relatively easy to move goods from place to place, as coal was moved from the north to London. In the 18th and early 19th centuries British entrepreneurs and landowners created a network of canals to make up for the relative lack of inland waterways. In the 19th and 20th centu- ries, railroads served a similar function.
Other variations in land include those of open country, with lighter soils; forests with heavy, clayey soils; and fens and swamps. Britain in the earliest times was heavily forested and also contained many fens and swamplands. These areas were often associated with outlaws and people who lived freer but poorer lives. Over the course of millennia, much of this land has been developed into agricultural use.
There are no really large rivers in Britain due to the small size of the island. The most important is the Thames in the south; others include the Trent and the Tweed in the north. Despite the lack of good, waterborne internal communications, the ocean’s proximity makes it relatively easy to move goods from place to place, as coal was moved from the north to London. In the 18th and early 19th centuries British entrepreneurs and landowners created a network of canals to make up for the relative lack of inland waterways. In the 19th and 20th centu- ries, railroads served a similar function.
